Report on Four Methods to Reduce Carbon Emissions in Transport Sector
24 September 2010
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
1.0 Introductions
1.1 Terms of Refernce
1.2 Scope/limits of the report
1.3 Procedure
2.0 The transport sector and its contribution to global warming
2.1 Impact of carbon emissions on global warming
2.2 Public transport (buses and trains)
2.2.1 Public transport system
2.2.2 Trains
2.3 Heavy vehicles (trucks)
2.3.1 Carbon emissions issue
2.3.2 Methods of reducing carbon emissions caused by trucks
2.3.3 Alternative energy sources
2.3.4 Land transport rules
2.4 Air travel
2.4.1 Increasing passenger numbers
2.4.2 New Zealand’s dilemma
2.4.3 New technology
2.4.4 Alternatives to flying
2.4.5 Can carbon emissions be reduced?
2.5 Shipping
2.5.1 Carbon emissions in shipping sector
2.5.2 Methods to reduce carbon emissions in shipping sector
3.0 Conclusions
3.2 Public transport (buses and trains)
3.3 Heavy vehicles (Trucks)
3.4 Air travel
3.5 Shipping
4.0 Recommendations
5.0 References
Executive Summary
This report was authorized by Prue Cruickshank as part of Communication for Professionals course at Unitec. The aim of the research was to study the impact of carbon emissions caused by the transport sector on the global climate, and evaluate four reduction methods for those emissions. The report also details the role of carbon emissions and its affect on the global climate.
Research was carried out on the major carbon emissions generators within transport industry and four main areas were identified. These were busses and trains, heavy vehicles (trucks), air travel and shipping.
The research concluded that a number of measures should be implemented to reduce carbon emissions. An improved public transport system should attract existing car users onto public transport. More research should be undertaken to examine the viability of bio fuels and electricity to run heavy vehicles. The increasing demand for air travel cannot be easily reconciled with reducing carbon emissions. The energy efficient construction of the ship’s hull, propeller and engines will cut down the carbon emissions.
The recommendation is that ongoing research needs to be undertaken to find ways and methods of reducing carbon emissions.
1.0 Introductions
1.1 Terms of Reference:
This report was authorized by Prue Cruickshank to research four methods of reducing carbon emissions within the transport sector. The report is due on 24 September 2010.
1.2 Scope/limits of the report
The purpose of the report is to describe the role of carbon emissions on the global climate. Research was limited to the environmental impacts of the transport sector.
1.3 Procedure
The research has been conducted utilising books, websites, journal articles and newspapers related to the various forms of transport. Regular discussions were held to assess the environmental impact of the transport industry.
2.0 The transport sector and its contribution to global warming
2.1 Impact of carbon emissions on global warming
Burning fossil fuels such as gas, coal or oil releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In a natural carbon cycle, carbon dioxide is re-absorbed by plants and trees. However, burning fuels where the carbon dioxide has been trapped under the earth's surface for millions of years, cannot be absorbed by living plants.
One effect of all this extra Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is to increase the temperature of the planet (global warming). This is causing floods, hurricanes, heat waves and droughts. Reducing the risk of ever more extreme weather requires reduced consumption of fossil fuels. This will not be easy. (The Carbon Account).
2.2 Public transport (buses and trains)
2.2.1 Public transport system
To reduce carbon emissions people must be encouraged to use public transport. By comparison with other developed countries in the world, New Zealand has an underdeveloped public transport system. For example, Auckland has a population of 1.3 million and only 25.8% of them use buses regularly. (NZ Bus). Wellington is slightly better at 34%. The New Zealand Government wants to increase this patronage and has provided funding to improve public transport in many cities and towns throughout New Zealand. For many however, it is clear that greater incentives to move out of cars and onto public transport will have to be provided if carbon emissions created by urban commuting is to be reduced.
With new and used cars getting cheaper, car dealers are seeing an increase in buyers. More people are switching from public transport to private cars. People find it easier and more convenient to drive to work, school or for shopping. On a typical week day morning in Auckland, for example, 63% of traffic is people going to work by car. A train can carry around 200 people, using much less energy and taking less the road space (NZ Bus).
Secondly, bus and train fares have increased in order to meet the rising costs of running public transport. These costs include fuel, maintenance and wages. Blundell (2008) says that it is disappointing when people are trying to do the right thing by catching buses or trains and they become more expensive. Most commuters find difficult to afford public transport on top of the rising costs of bills and food. People should be encouraged to use public transport in order to reduce the congestion on the road and so reducing carbon emissions. But increasing fares force some commuters to reject trains and buses. Green Party Michael Gilchrist said that this has negative impact on those people who have relied on public transport (Blundell, 2008).
2.2.2 Trains
Compared with busses, trains generate one quarter of the amount of carbon emissions (Preston, 2008). A substantial shift to rail from road would be an essential component of any national strategy aimed at cutting Carbon dioxide emissions (DVV Media UK Ltd). However in New Zealand, travelling by rail is comparatively highly priced and poor value for money. New Zealanders still rely heavily on the road network. The key challenge is how rail can deliver on its promise of providing cheap and reliable transportation.
Despite greatly increased public awareness of global warming, the environmental impacts of private and public transport are not yet a key influencing factor in New Zealanders transport choices.
2.3 Heavy vehicles (trucks)
Road transport is the dominant mode of transportation in New Zealand. While it provides many economic and social benefits, it also has environmental and health impacts. Both population growth and increasing economic activity have a significant influence on road transport activity. By making comparisons over time, we can see how intensively New Zealanders are using road transport resources.
2.3.1 Carbon emissions issue
Emissions from vehicle exhausts contain carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. Approximately 16 per cent of New Zealand’s total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions come from road transport (Ministry for the Environment, 2008). Different types of vehicles place different pressures on the environment. On average, heavy vehicles generate more greenhouse gas emissions and produce more harmful air pollutants for each kilometre travelled than any other vehicle type. Between 2001 and 2007, the kilometres travelled by trucks increased (Environmental Report Card, 2009). Table one shows that in 2008 new truck registration decreased. This is associated with an increase in fuel prices and coincides with an economic slowdown period. Petrol and diesel are the main fuel types used for road transport in New Zealand. Combustion of each fuel type produces different air pollutants and amounts of greenhouse gas for each kilometre travelled.
Table1. Vehicles registered during the year 2008
New Used Total
2008 2007 2008 2007 2008 2007
Trucks 29,803 34,571 116 1,233 30,919 35,804
Source: NZ Transport Agency
2.3.2 Methods of reducing carbon emission caused by trucks
The Government controlled permit system allows trucks to operate up to a weight of 50 tonnes (gross). The Heavy Vehicle Productivity Project Emissions Monitoring Programme 2009 claimed that emissions from trucks did not increase proportionally when the maximum gross vehicle mass increased from 44 tonnes to 50 tonnes. The main reasons for increasing the maximum total weight was to promote the efficient use of heavy vehicles; to slow the rate of increase in heavy vehicle movements; to boost long term economic growth and productivity and to reduce road congestion and fuel use.
2.3.3 Alternative energy sources
Energy sources for transport will be considered as part of the development of a New Zealand Energy Strategy. The introduction of bio fuels is an opportunity to reduce Carbon dioxide emissions of up to 1.027 million tonnes between 2008 and 2012 (Transport Overview Cabinet Paper, 2006). Furthermore, other options will include, looking at long-term opportunities around the use of electricity for transport plus more immediate opportunities for bio fuels.
2.3.4 Land transport rules
The Vehicle Exhaust Emissions Rule, which took effect at the beginning of 2008, is expected to decrease the harmful exhaust emissions of new and used imported vehicles entering New Zealand. The Rule requires the implementation of progressively higher emissions standards for all vehicles (light and heavy, petrol and diesel).
2.4 Air Travel
2.4.1 Increasing passenger numbers
Most data collected on the amount of emissions caused by air travel relates to domestic air travel only. There is no international agreement as yet on the ways of allocating the emissions from international passenger travel. (Source: U.K. Department for Transport, 2005). The harmful effects of international air travel on the environment have largely been ignored.
Air passengers cannot ignore their contribution to global carbon levels. “There are two reasons flying dwarfs any other impact a single person can make. The first is the distance it permits us to cover. The second is that the climate impact of aeroplanes is not confined to the carbon they produce. They release several different kinds of gasses and particles” (Monboit, 2006, p173).
2.4.2 New Zealand’s dilemma
It may be possible to reduce carbon emissions in the airline industry by incentivising the development of new technologies and improving both airline and airport operations. The Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) has this as one of its objectives. The ETS provides airlines with an opportunity to voluntarily opt-in to the scheme by purchasing emissions units through a commercial trading unit. Only Air New Zealand has opted-in domestically and has taken the lead in a scheme that will add three cents to a litre of fuel.
It is motivated by growing consumer concern for global warming and an increasing awareness of the environmental damage caused by the aviation industry. New Zealand is a country that relies heavily on international tourism for employment and foreign income and opting-in to the scheme fits with New Zealand’s “clean, green” image. Phillip Mills, a believer in the economic benefits of going green, states the case for Air New Zealand, “You’re in the airline industry, you’re in what looks like in the short term quite an unsustainable industry, and you’re at the very far end of the planet. So what Air New Zealand did is say ‘we are going to become the world’s greenest airline’. And it won an award for being the world’s greenest airline. That is a fantastic marketing strategy....” (Source: The Listener, Sep 4-10 2010, “Between a Rock and a Green Place”).
The scheme however, applies to domestic air travel only and jet fuel used on international flights is exempted.
2.4.3 New technology
The development of more efficient aircraft and cleaner burning bio fuels are two further aims of the Emissions Trading Scheme. Jörn Scherzer, an advisor with the Environment team at the New Zealand Ministry of Transport claims that “by increasing efficiency, business can get better value for money and manage the effects of the ETS. An airline may wish to invest in more efficient planes to increase fuel efficiency in the short term and to invest in bio fuels to reduce its reliance on fossil fuels in the longer term”.
In reality, neither of these things is happening. It is difficult to imagine the introduction of a new technology in the aviation industry anytime soon. Even if it were possible, there are thousands of aircraft around the world that would have to be replaced. In the competitive aviation industry, this is unlikely. An example is the Boeing 747, an air craft that came into service in 1970 and still widely used today, albeit with much improved engines. But the trend to large aircraft continues. They reduce the amount of emissions per passenger when the aircraft is full to capacity, but nevertheless, burn far greater amounts of fuel than smaller aircraft.
Bio fuels added to jet fuel (kerosene) is impractical. Bio fuel has a ‘cloud point’ much higher than kerosene, and “...because of the low temperatures in the troposphere, (this) could stop engines if the plane flew at normal heights ... they would permit the plane to fly at up to 9,500 metres” (Monbiot, 2006, p180). Flying at this height is extremely inefficient. Bio fuels may ultimately cause more global warming than they prevent.
2.4.4 Alternatives to flying
Greater use of propeller planes may be one way of reconciling increased passenger demand with reducing carbon emissions. Modern propeller craft require 59% as much fuel per passenger as a jet aircraft (Source: Avions de Transport Regional, The Last Generation Turboprop: the Green Power of Tomorrow). However, propeller planes are much slower than jet planes, making them impractical for international flights where time is often a priority.
Domestic flying is generally more inefficient than international flights. This is due to the extra energy consumed during takeoff and landing. Although propeller planes burn less fossil fuel than jet aircraft, they do not compare well against other means of domestic transport. Short-haul flights produce 150 grams of carbon per passenger kilometre but travelling by coach-bus produces only 4.3 grams per passenger kilometre. (Source: U.K. Department for Transport, 2005).
2.4.5 Reducing carbon emissions and increasing demand
The increasing opportunities to travel by air have increased its demand. “As you increase the provision for space in order to meet the projected demand, the demand rises to fill it. Demand would not have risen in the first place if you hadn’t created the space”. (Monbiot, 2006, p176)
Airlines in recent years have adopted a policy of lowering costs, increasing the number of seats on air craft and offering ever cheaper air fares to stimulate more demand. Along with our need for fast travel these policies have made flying the preferred way to travel.
The most realistic method of reducing the carbon emissions from aviation is to limit the capacity of airports.
2.5 Shipping
The international shipping industry is responsible for the carriage of about 90% of world trade and is vital to the global economy. Without shipping, intercontinental trade, the bulk transport of raw materials and the import/export of affordable food and goods would be impossible. Globalization makes it easy to send goods around the world. The cost for shipping goods has never been as low as now.
2.5.1 Carbon emissions in shipping sector
Burning fuels necessary to operate ships leads to the emission of exhaust gases into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides are the predominant emissions. However, sea transport is by far the most energy efficient and environmentally friendly mode of transport.
There has been a 75% rise in carbon emissions from sea transport. Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping are increasing at an alarming rate and will have a serious impact on global warming.
Separate studies suggest that maritime carbon dioxide emissions are not only higher than previously thought, but could rise by another 75% in the next 15 to 20 years (The International Maritime Organization).
Like international air travel, carbon dioxide emissions from ships do not come under the Kyoto agreement or any proposed European legislation. They have been largely ignored by governments and environmental groups.
Ships are also getting bigger and carbon dioxide emissions from shipping will soon comprise four percent of the global total. Donald Gregory, director of environment at BP Marine, said that BP estimates that the global fleet of 70,000 ships uses approximately 200m tonnes of fuel a year and this is expected to grow to 350m tonnes a year by 2020.
The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) of the International Maritime Organization has concluded that more work needs to be done before it completes its consideration of the proposed mandatory application of technical and operational measures designed to regulate and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from international shipping.
2.5.2 Methods to reduce carbon emission in shipping sector
The various parts of the shipping industry – ship owners, shipbuilders and classification societies are actively examining a number of ways to reduce Carbon dioxide emissions, both for new and existing ships. Their prime focus is reducing fuel consumption. In the longer term, however, the shipping industry is also exploring a number of alternative fuel sources to help reduce Carbon dioxide emissions.
Renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, may have their place in helping to meet some ancillary requirements, such as lighting on board ships. However, they are not practical for providing sufficient power to operate ships’ main engines.
Fuel cells may be a possibility for new ships in the long term, although they are currently too limited in range to offer a viable solution. Even nuclear propulsion for merchant ships is technically possible, although safety and security implications and support infrastructure costs would require further research. In the foreseeable ships will continue to burn fossil fuels and the most realistic means of reducing Carbon dioxide emissions is to improve efficiency across the entire transport chain.
Second generation bio fuel might conceivably provide a possible alternative although there is, of course, considerable public debate about the net environmental costs and social effect of the wider use of such fuels.
The shipping industry has recently taken the initiative to become more environmentally responsible and is looking into ways it can cut carbon emissions. One company doing this is the Maersk shipping line. They have set various targets in place to lower their carbon emissions by 20% by 2017. They are optimizing their engines and renovating their vessels to be more eco friendly. They are also currently developing a very slow steaming system for all of their vessels. They hope to become a more eco friendly brand and an example for the whole industry.
When looking at reducing carbon emissions from shipping, the issue of bio fuel is commonly highlighted. Bio fuel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats and recycled grease. Some companies have already tested these fuels to see if they are beneficial. Bio fuel may reduce carbon emissions from shipping.
Another project started by Maerskline includes improving engine design, the optimisation of ventilation systems, and more efficient hull and propeller maintenance. They have also researched new fuel cells and alternative energy sources.
Their effort starts at the ship design phase, with the energy-efficient construction of the vessels’ hull, propeller and engines. Examples are:
• Installation of waste heat recovery systems, enabling waste heat to be used for propulsion, thereby reducing fuel consumption by up to 10 percent
• Waste oil clarification decanters that separate burnable liquids from waste oil, water and sludge mixtures
• New cylinder lubrication systems that use less lubricating oil.
3.0 Conclusions
3.1 Public transport (buses and trains)
The public transport system needs to be upgraded by introducing effective and economical transport facilities. Low fares and increasing the frequency of buses and trains will encourage people to use these services. This would in turn reduce the traffic congestion during busy working hours thereby reducing carbon emissions from passenger cars. Trains are better than buses because they do not occupy road space. For more commuters to take trains, the railway must deliver its promise to create value for commuters. The Government should further subsidize bus and train fares and provide more lanes dedicate to buses only. This would in turn reduce the traffic congestion during busy working and reduce the carbon emissions from private passenger cars.
3.2 Heavy vehicles (trucks)
The carbon emission by heavy vehicles on road has become an environmental issue. Heavy vehicles like truck generate more carbon emission than any other forms of road transport. A government controlled permit system is required to allow trucks to operate at up to 50 tonnes gross vehicle weight. This would improve the efficiency in the use of heavy vehicles thereby reducing carbon emission. The use of bio fuels and electricity to operate heavy vehicles are also being considered.
3.3 Air travel
The demand for cheap air travel is increasing more rapidly than ever. At the same time, public and political pressure to curb carbon emissions continues to intensify. Successful airlines will have to find ways of reconciling these two. The promised new technology to solve this dilemma has not yet materialised, and even if a breakthrough occurs soon, change would be slow and costly. Improved engine efficiency has reduced emissions on a per capita basis, but the trend for larger aircraft flying further is accelerating.
The Emissions Trading Scheme promotes the efficient use of fossil fuels. For the airline industry, the focus should be on improving operations and air traffic control. Reducing the time aircraft queue on the ground and in the air during takeoff and landing and filling aircraft to capacity are measures airlines could take to reduce the amount of fuel consumed. The practice of competing only on price should also be reassessed.
Governments could play a part by promoting and subsidising alternatives to flying. For example, when travelling domestically coach busses are more efficient than air craft. Bus stations could be moved close to motorway entrances to save time.
Using propeller air craft may be another way of reducing carbon emission as they use less fuel per passenger than jet aircrafts. Higher taxes levied on jet fuel (ETS scheme) however, would have only a limited effect on reducing fuel consumption. The option of using bio fuels in aircrafts is currently impractical as the normal altitude on which aircrafts fly could freeze the bio fuel thereby causing the engine to stop.
It does not appear possible to reconcile the increasing demand for air travel and the need to curb carbon emissions. Reducing the speed and frequency of journeys seems to be the only realistic option.
3.4 Shipping
Sea Transport plays an important role in the transportation of goods around the world. There has been mounting evidence from the recent studies that carbon emissions from shipping are increasing at an alarming rate. Carbon emissions from ships do not come under Kyoto agreement or any other proposed European legislation.
Now, innovative ways to operate ships using wind and solar power are being researched. The energy efficient construction of the ship’s hulls, propellers and engines will cut down the carbon emissions.
Advancement in the production of bio fuels will also aid the shipping industry to reduce carbon emissions.
4.0 Recommendations
It is recommended that:
4.1 The government should provide greater subsidies to public transport.
4.2 Bio fuels and electricity should be considered as an alternative fuels to operate heavy
vehicles.
4.3 Reduce the capacity of airports thereby reducing the number of passengers.
4.4 More energy efficient hulls, propellers and engines should be constructed for ships.
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